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标题: 马拉松战役 Battle of Marathon 2500年 [打印本页]

作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-20 01:38
标题: 马拉松战役 Battle of Marathon 2500年
本帖最后由 ngsunyu 于 2010-9-20 01:39 编辑

马拉松战役发生在公元前490年，为人类的战争史一场著名的会战。马拉松战役可以说是雅典，也可以说是整个希腊第一次靠自己的力量击退波斯的一场会战，对于希腊文明在之后三个世纪中所达到的光辉无比的成就而言，马拉松战役无疑是这一成就的最初的台阶。

公元前522年，当波斯王冈比西斯逝世时，波斯帝国的国境东达印度边境、西至爱琴海、北抵黑海、南及努比亚和印度洋。公元前521年，大流士登基时，整个波斯帝国国内叛乱四起，国外一些大国则虎视眈眈，帝国悬于分崩离析的边缘。为了避免这种结果，为了巩固自己的统治政权，大流士开始以严酷的手段镇压内乱、恢复帝国秩序、组织规模更加庞大的舰队。在所有举措中，大流士最伟大的一个策略是建立起一个覆盖整个帝国的大交通网，如此一来，帝国的军队就有了可怕的机动性。内部叛乱平定后，大流士即开始拓展帝国版图。国界向东越过了印度河后，大流士便着手西扩的计划，他打算拿下希腊。

波斯人的进攻计划是布置一支陆军在马拉松湾（位于雅典东北方，距离雅典25英里）登陆，对雅典造成陆上进攻的威胁，以此诱导雅典守城的陆军出城迎敌，从而城内空虚。这样一来，另一部分波斯军和雅典城内的叛乱分子就能里应外合，一举攻陷雅典城。前往埃雷特里亚的波斯军此时兵分两路，由阿尔塔费尼斯率领的大约1万兵力围攻埃雷特里亚，而大提士则率领约1.5万兵力按计划在马拉松湾登陆。雅典援助埃雷特里亚的军队组织完毕后，在总司令卡利马科斯指挥下出城向北，朝埃雷特里亚进发。得悉波斯人已在马拉松湾登陆的消息，卡利马科斯急忙命令军队右转，进入环山的阿弗龙纳谷地驻军，并在那里与普拉蒂亚人的队伍会合。波斯人的军队此时驻扎在大沼地，与雅典人的驻地当中隔着卡拉德拉河，相距约6英里。两军对持了数日没有动作，这主要是因为雅典人的阵地易守难攻。照道理，雅典人应该坚守阵地以待斯巴达援军到来，在人数上与波斯军队达成一致后才展开战斗，但此时突然传来埃雷特里亚已经被攻陷的消息，这就意味着那部分本来攻击埃雷特里亚的兵力已经腾出了空，随时可能赶赴马拉松平原的战场，也可能转战围攻正值城中空虚的雅典。埃雷特里亚的陷落打破了马拉松平原上的僵局，雅典人不得不决定是否在此一战，将波斯人赶回大海，要么全体撤军回雅典，守城防御。将军之一的米太亚德主战，而另几位将军则主张回雅典，最后通过投票选举，最终达成一致决定战争。轮值的将军米太亚德提出了主要的进攻战略，他表示雅典方面在兵力上不敌波斯（雅典约1万－1.1万，波斯约1.5万），为了以防波斯军在战斗中包围雅典军，米太亚德计划加重两翼及边缘的兵力布置。

战争爆发（日期可能为9月21日左右），雅典军与波斯军各自在卡拉德拉河与小沼地间的马拉松平原上摆出阵形，按照当时的常规，两军在相隔不到1英里的地方横列了两排长长的方阵。不同的是，雅典的方阵是中部减为四排，两翼则维持为五排；而波斯的方阵则从左到右都维持为五排。如此一来，兵力布置不均等的雅典军方阵在受到波斯军的均等攻击后，雅典的方阵就自然而然的出现了这么一种情况：相对于两翼，方阵中部的进攻速度显得迟缓，并且不一会儿就开始呈现溃散之势，而使波斯军能够长驱直入。深入敌阵的波斯方阵的两翼开始收缩，就像倾倒的沙漏一般陷入雅典军。两军原本横列的阵形开始纵向的发展，雅典军中部方阵后退的兵力补充在两翼上，使得两翼向前的进攻速度更快，并开始在波斯军的尾部向中心收拢，形成了两邊包围的局面。被迫挤在雅典军当中的波斯军，受到雅典军左右两面的夹击，阵形大乱，无法有效攻击，恐慌的波斯士兵最后放弃了战斗，转身往岸边的波斯战舰奔去，而雅典军此时一鼓作气的乘胜追击。到此时，这场战役的结果已经显现出来了，波斯军的败局已经无可挽回。在海岸边，来不及逃亡的波斯军不得不与追击来的雅典军再次战斗，已经毫无招架能力的波斯方面这次更是败得惨不忍睹。在损失了四成的兵力和7艘船后，大提士终于带着残兵逃到海上。另一方面，攻陷埃雷特里亚的那部分波斯军正在阿尔塔费尼斯的率领下准备在法里龙登陆进攻雅典城。因此，马拉松平原上的雅典军刻不容缓，整军赶回雅典。眼看失了先机的阿尔塔费尼斯终于放弃了进攻的计划，撤军回海上，与大提士会合后一同回去亚洲。至此，马拉松战役结束。

据说，当雅典军在马拉松平原大败波斯军后，使者费里皮德斯（Pheilippides）由马拉松平原跑回雅典报捷，全程约42.195公里，途中从未停顿。当费里皮德斯回到雅典，将胜利的消息转告雅典人后，当即死去。为了纪念他，希腊人在1896年举行了第一次马拉松赛跑大会。
(http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh/马拉松战役)

马拉松战役的希腊和波斯步兵

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作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-20 01:45
本帖最后由 ngsunyu 于 2010-9-20 05:35 编辑

The Chigi vase is a Protocorinthian olpe, or pitcher, that is the name vase of the Chigi Painter. It was found in an Etruscan tomb at Monte Aguzzo, near Cesena, on Prince Mario Chigi’s estate in 1881. The vase has been variously assigned to the middle and late protocorinthian periods and given a date of ca. 650-640 BC; it is now in the National Etruscan Museum, Villa Giulia, Rome (inv. No.22679).
The Chigi vase itself is a polychromatic work decorated in four friezes of mythological and genre scenes and four bands of ornamentation; amongst these tableaux is the earliest representation of the hoplite phalanx formation – the sole pictorial evidence of its use in the mid- to late-7th century, and terminus post quem of the "hoplite reform" that altered military tactics.
In the highest and largest frieze is the scene that has attracted the most scholarly attention – a battle involving hoplite warfare. However this characterization is not without its problems. For one thing, the hoplites shown here meeting at the moment of othismos (or "push") do not carry short swords, but instead like their Homeric forebears have two spears; one for thrusting and one for throwing. Further, Tyrtaeus (11.11-14 West) does not mention a supporting second rank as it may be represented; it is far from self-evident this is a second rank depicted on the vase or that it supports the first. To render the phalanx tactics unambiguously the painter would have had to have given a bird's-eye view of the action, a perspective unknown in Greek vase painting. Consequently it is not clear if the hoplite formation shown here is the developed form as it was practiced from the 6th century onwards. Lastly flautists and cadenced marching are not attested in the ancient literature, so the flute-player drawn here cannot have served in reality to keep the troops in step: what function he had, if any, is open to speculation. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chigi_vase)

Chigi 瓶展示希腊重装步兵 (Hoplite) 的密集方陣 (Phalanx formation)。不是马拉松战役。可能是希腊城邦的内战。

Phalanx marching into battle from Oenochoe Chigi 640 BC 2010 Athens ed Scala 1982.jpg (193.92 KB, 下载次数: 91)

作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-20 01:50
本帖最后由 ngsunyu 于 2010-9-20 05:37 编辑

希腊重装步兵 (Hoplite) 的密集方陣 (Phalanx formation)

在希腊古典時期，重裝步兵是軍隊的主力，也是決定勝負關鍵。而騎兵通常負責保衛步兵方陣的側翼，並掩護撤退或進行追擊。輕裝步兵和投射部隊也參與戰鬥的一部分，但他們的角色地位不是很重要。輕裝步兵僅僅只有在敵方部隊畏懼近身作戰，或者遇到像波希戰爭的波斯軍隊一樣，因部隊多使用弓箭作戰，使兩軍中間留一段距離，這時戰列後方的希腊輕裝部隊會使用投石索、標槍往敵方投射。或著是在追擊時輕裝部隊會派上用場。

希腊重装步兵（希腊語：ὁπλίται，hoplitai），是古希腊城邦的公民士兵，他們主要使用長槍並以密集方陣作戰，其自字源古希腊語: ὁπλίται，（hoplitai），是從ὅπλον（hoplon）衍伸而來。「hoplon」是指武器或全部武裝，故「hoplitai」就是指全身武裝的士兵，之後這一詞語衍伸為古希腊的重裝步兵。

當一場戰役進行，雙方步兵方陣起初用穩定速度慢慢接近來保持隊形完整，在快接近的時後會開始衝鋒。希腊重裝步兵作戰時，雙方前列兵（protostates）會用盾牌互相推擠並用長槍攻擊，同時試著保持隊形。在前列兵後面的後列兵（Epistates）會用手中的長槍支援前者攻擊，還以手上的盾牌緩緩往前推擠，不僅是要讓前列士兵往前施壓並破壞對方陣形，還要維持自身陣形完整。假如雙方用長槍攻擊也無法分出勝負，或是長槍折斷了，這時士兵會拔出短劍做更近身攻擊。

當雙方戰鬥進入幾乎盾牌對盾牌，密集隊形又會讓武器幾乎沒有發揮空間時，這時雙方前列士兵依靠後方同袍所提供的推力，組成盾牆往對方擠，企圖迫使對方陣列後退並使陣形破裂，這個階段即「othismos」。到了這個時刻主要是依靠整個方陣的力氣，勝負就看哪方訓練和勇氣夠不夠精實，能否站穩住腳，並維持這個隊形較久。當一方力氣不濟時就讓陣形被推開一個缺口，破裂陣形的一方通常都無法抵擋敵人進攻，而使戰役分出勝負。所以希腊方陣最前列的士兵相當關鍵的，通常他是經驗最豐富，也是最英勇的，同時也是一行的隊長。一旦陣形被突破，方陣會逐漸從戰場上潰散，有時會遭到希腊輕裝部隊、希腊輕盾兵（peltast）或輕騎兵追擊。

希腊方陣是戰爭中團體精神擊敗英雄式單打獨鬥的好例子，在古希腊早期盛行荷馬式的個人英雄主義戰鬥，終究被密集方陣所取代。因一個希腊城邦所組成的步兵方陣，團體中有些是親戚、朋友、甚至是鄰居，這種戰袍和人際關係更加強方陣的戰鬥力，也加強團體的凝聚力。
(http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh/希臘重装步兵)

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作者: 张福魁 时间: 2010-9-20 23:34
学习，学习！

作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-21 02:43
本帖最后由 ngsunyu 于 2010-9-21 02:49 编辑

The hoplite phalanx of the Archaic and Classical periods in Greece (approx. 750-350 BC) was a formation in which the hoplites would line up in ranks in close order. The hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields. The phalanx therefore presented a shield wall and a mass of spear points to the enemy, making frontal assaults much more difficult. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanx_formation)

Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly-armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle. The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon)

官片有金色邮戳。自制片用黑墨盖戳。

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作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-21 02:53
本帖最后由 ngsunyu 于 2010-9-21 02:54 编辑

雅典重装步兵 (Hoplite) 的武器: 矛和盾

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作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-21 02:56
The "Immortals (不死隊) " , from the Greek Ἀθάνατοι, sometimes "Ten Thousand Immortals (万人隊)" or "Persian Immortals", was the name given by Herodotus to an elite force of soldiers who fought for the Achaemenid Empire. This force performed the dual roles of both Imperial Guard (親衛隊) and standing army during the Persian Empire's expansion and during the Greco-Persian Wars. Its Persian name may have been Anûšiya ('companions'). Probably, Herodotus' informant has confused the name Anûšiya ('companions') with Anauša ('Immortals'). Herodotus describes the 'Immortals' as being heavy infantry led by Hydarnes that were kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the cohesion of the unit.

Herodotus describes their armament as follows: wicker shield, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow. Underneath their robes they wore scale armour coats, which, however, proved less effective against the Greek weapons than the Greek linen or bronze cuirasses. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortals_(Persian_Empire)

波斯重裝精鋭部隊用弓箭標槍作戰

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作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-21 06:31
When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them". Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines, shouting their ululating war cry, "Ελελευ! Ελελευ!" ("Eleleu! Eleleu!"). It is doubtful that the Athenians ran the whole distance; in full armour this would be very difficult. More likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone", (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy. Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops. All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians; "...in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal, seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run, having neither cavalry nor archers". Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army, protected for the most part by their armour, the Greek line finally collided with the enemy army. Holland provides an evocative description: "The enemy directly in their path...realised to their horror that [the Athenians], far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen, as they had first imagined, were not going to be halted...The impact was devastating. The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes, wooden shields smashing against wooden shields, iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze...in those first terrible seconds of collision, there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing, at most, quilted jerkins for protection, and armed, perhaps, with nothing more than bows or slings. The hoplites' ash spears, rather than shivering...could instead stab and stab again, and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon)

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作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-23 04:20
"Helmet of Miltiades". The helmet was given as an offering to the temple of Zeus at Olympia by Miltiades, who engineered the Athenian victory over the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. Inscription on the helmet: ΜΙLTIAΔES. Archaeological Museum of Olympia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger)

马拉松战役希腊将军米太亚德的头盔

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作者: ngsunyu 时间: 2010-9-23 04:24
第一，第三，第七，第八张是官片、在欧洲拍卖每张22元或 65~88元一套。

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